Editing Africa (section)

=== 4th millennium BC – 6th century AD ===

During the period from the 4th millennium BC to the 6th century AD, several major African societies and states developed. These included ancient Egypt, Nubian kingdoms, early North African states, Ethiopian and Eritrean highland polities, Saharan trade communities, and early ironworking societies in West, Central, Eastern, and Southern Africa.

This period saw the development of cities, writing systems, monumental architecture, long-distance trade, organized religion, metallurgy, and political centralization in several regions. The Nile Valley was one of the most important early centers of state formation, while other areas developed complex societies through agriculture, pastoralism, riverine trade, coastal trade, and mineral production.

==== Northeast Africa ====

Northeast Africa included the Nile Valley, the Red Sea coast, and adjacent highlands and deserts. Ancient [[Egypt]] developed one of the earliest centralized states in the world. Its society was based on the Nile, irrigation agriculture, writing, religious institutions, monarchy, administrative bureaucracy, and long-distance trade.

To the south, Nubian kingdoms such as [[Kerma]], [[Kush]], and later [[Meroë]] became important political and commercial powers. Nubia interacted with Egypt through trade, war, diplomacy, cultural exchange, and periods of rule. The region also became a corridor linking northeastern Africa with the Red Sea, the Sahara, and the wider Mediterranean world.

The spread of Christianity in Egypt and Nubia during late antiquity created lasting religious and cultural traditions. The Coptic tradition in Egypt and Christian kingdoms in Nubia became central features of the region before later Islamic expansion.

==== Horn of Africa ====

The [[Horn of Africa]] developed connections with Arabia, the Red Sea, the Nile Valley, and the Indian Ocean. The region included trading communities, highland agricultural societies, and early states. The kingdom of [[Aksum]] became one of the most important powers in the region during late antiquity.

Aksum controlled trade routes linking the Red Sea, the African interior, and the wider Indian Ocean system. It issued coins, built monumental stelae, and adopted Christianity as a state religion. Its influence extended across parts of present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea and into Red Sea trade networks.

The Horn also contained diverse pastoralist, agricultural, and coastal communities. Over time, the region became an important center of Christian, Islamic, and indigenous religious traditions.

==== Northwest Africa ====

Northwest Africa included the Maghreb, the Atlas Mountains, the Mediterranean coast, and Saharan trade routes. Berber-speaking communities formed a major part of the region's population. Phoenician and later Carthaginian settlements connected the coast to Mediterranean commerce.

Carthage became a major political and maritime power before its defeat by Rome. Under Roman rule, North Africa became an important agricultural and urban region. Cities, roads, ports, villas, and administrative centers developed across the region. Christianity spread widely in Roman North Africa, producing important figures and institutions.

After the decline of Roman authority, the region experienced Vandal, Byzantine, and local rule before the Arab-Islamic expansion of the 7th century. These changes reshaped language, religion, law, trade, and political organization.

==== West Africa ====

West Africa developed through a combination of farming, river trade, forest production, metalworking, and trans-Saharan exchange. Early communities used the Niger River, the Senegal River, the Volta basin, forest routes, and savanna corridors to exchange goods and ideas.

Ironworking, agriculture, and settlement growth supported the development of complex societies. The Nok culture in present-day Nigeria is known for terracotta sculpture and early ironworking. Later, West African states and kingdoms grew along trade routes linking gold-producing regions with Saharan and North African markets.

By the early medieval period, the foundations of later empires such as Ghana, Mali, and Songhai were already developing through control of trade, agriculture, taxation, and military organization.

==== Central, Eastern, and Southern Africa ====

Central, Eastern, and Southern Africa saw the spread of farming, ironworking, and Bantu-speaking communities over many centuries. These movements did not replace all earlier populations, but they reshaped language, agriculture, settlement, and political organization across large areas.

Central Africa developed forest communities, river trade, and later kingdoms linked to the Congo Basin. Eastern Africa included inland pastoralist and farming societies, coastal trading settlements, and links to the Indian Ocean. Southern Africa included hunter-gatherer, pastoralist, and farming communities, as well as later stone-built centers such as [[Great Zimbabwe]].

These regions were connected by trade in iron, copper, gold, cattle, ivory, salt, grain, and crafted goods. Local societies developed many forms of leadership, from small lineage-based communities to large kingdoms.