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{{Infobox mountain
{{Infobox mountain
| name               = Andes Mountains
| name = Andes Mountains
| native_name        = Cordillera de los Andes
| highest = [[Aconcagua]]
| native_name_lang  = es
| elevation_m = 6961
| photo              =
| length_km = 8900
| photo_caption      =
| width_km = 330
| highest           = [[Aconcagua]]
| location = Western [[South America]]
| elevation_m       = 6961
| country_type = Countries
| length_km         = 8900
| country = {{hlist|[[Argentina]]|[[Bolivia]]|[[Chile]]|[[Colombia]]|[[Ecuador]]|[[Peru]]|[[Venezuela]]}}
| width_km           = 330
| orogeny = Andean orogeny
| range_coordinates  = {{coord|32|S|70|W|type:mountain_region:AR-CH|display=inline}}
| location           = Western [[South America]]
| country_type       = Countries
| country           = [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Peru]], [[Venezuela]]
| orogeny           = Andean orogeny
}}
}}


'''Andes''' or '''Andes Mountains''' (Spanish: '''Cordillera de los Andes''') is a mountain range along the western side of [[South America]]. It extends from the southern end of the continent to the northern coast near the [[Caribbean Sea]], passing through [[Argentina]], [[Bolivia]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Peru]], and [[Venezuela]].
The '''Andes''', also called the '''Andes Mountains''' (Spanish: '''Cordillera de los Andes'''), are a mountain range extending along the western side of [[South America]].<ref name="south-america-geography"/> They run for approximately 8,900 kilometres from the Caribbean coast of [[Venezuela]] to southern [[Argentina]] and [[Chile]], making them the longest continental mountain range in the world. Their highest point is [[Aconcagua]] in Argentina, which reaches 6,961 metres above sea level.


The Andes are the longest continental mountain range in the world. The highest peak is [[Aconcagua]] in [[Argentina]], near the border with [[Chile]]. The range contains high plateaus, volcanic zones, glaciated peaks, valleys, mountain passes, and desert margins. In southern [[Argentina]] and [[Chile]], the Andes form the western highland belt of [[Patagonia]].
The range separates much of the Pacific coast from the interior of the continent. Its eastern slopes contain the headwaters of rivers that cross the South American lowlands toward the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. In southern Argentina and Chile, the Andes form the western highland belt of [[Patagonia]].


== Geography ==
== Geography ==
The Andes run roughly north to south along the Pacific side of South America. In many areas, the range separates narrow coastal regions from the interior plains, basins, and plateaus of the continent. It is not a single line of mountains, but a system of cordilleras, high valleys, intermontane basins, and plateau regions.
The northern Andes begin near the [[Caribbean Sea]] in Venezuela. In [[Colombia]], the range separates into parallel cordilleras divided by the valleys of the Magdalena and Cauca rivers. Farther south, volcanic ranges cross [[Ecuador]] and enclose elevated basins containing settlements such as [[Quito]].


The range is usually divided into the Northern Andes, Central Andes, and Southern Andes. The Northern Andes include the mountain systems of [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]], and [[Ecuador]]. The Central Andes include the highlands of [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]], including the [[Altiplano]]. The Southern Andes extend through [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]], including the Patagonian and Fuegian sections in the far south.
The central Andes extend through [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]]. This section contains broad highlands between the eastern and western cordilleras. The [[Altiplano]] forms the largest of these plateaus and lies at an elevation of approximately 3,700 metres. Its interior contains enclosed drainage basins where water collects in lakes or salt flats rather than reaching the sea. The western side of the central Andes borders the dry Pacific coast and the [[Atacama Desert]].


In [[Patagonia]], the southern Andes contain glacial valleys, lakes, forests, snowfields, and mountain passes. Many rivers in western and southern Argentina have headwaters in Andean catchments before flowing eastward across the plateau toward the [[Atlantic Ocean]]. The [[Colorado River (Argentina)|Colorado River]] begins from Andean headwaters and is commonly used as the northern geographic boundary of Argentine Patagonia.
The southern Andes follow the border between Chile and Argentina. Their northern section contains the highest elevations in the range, including Aconcagua. Farther south, the mountains become lower and narrower as they enter Patagonia. Glaciers have cut deep valleys into this section and formed lake basins between the ridges. The eastern slopes supply rivers that flow across Patagonia toward the Atlantic. The [[Colorado River (Argentina)|Colorado River]] is formed by tributaries whose headwaters rise in the eastern Andes.<ref name="colorado-headwaters"/>


== Geology ==
== Geology ==
The Andes formed mainly through the subduction of oceanic plates beneath the South American Plate along the western margin of the continent. This process produced uplift, folding, faulting, volcanism, and earthquake activity.
The Andes formed through the movement of oceanic crust beneath the western edge of the South American Plate. Along most of the continental margin, the Nazca Plate descends beneath South America. Compression above the plate boundary shortened and thickened the continental crust, causing it to rise. This process began before the modern range developed and continues to affect the mountains.


The range remains geologically active. Several Andean sections contain active or dormant volcanoes, especially in parts of [[Chile]], [[Argentina]], [[Peru]], [[Bolivia]], [[Ecuador]], and [[Colombia]]. Earthquakes also occur along the Pacific margin and associated fault systems. Volcanic and tectonic activity contributed to mineral deposits that shaped mining activity in several Andean countries.
Subduction also produces earthquakes and volcanic activity. Magma rises where water released from the descending plate lowers the melting point of the overlying mantle. The resulting volcanoes occur in distinct sections rather than as an uninterrupted chain because the angle of the descending plate changes along the continent.


== Climate and environment ==
Erosion has reshaped the uplifted terrain. Rivers cut through the eastern slopes and carry sediment toward the continental interior. Glaciers widened valleys in the southern Andes and left moraine deposits after retreating. Tectonic activity also contributed to the formation of mineral deposits. Copper mining became especially extensive in Chile, while highland basins in the central Andes contain lithium-bearing salt deposits.
The Andes contain many climate zones because the range extends across much of South America and reaches very high elevations. Northern sections include humid mountain forests, cloud forests, and high grasslands. Central sections include dry high plateaus, salt flats, and desert margins. Southern sections include temperate forests, glaciers, snowfields, and cold steppe environments.


Elevation strongly affects local conditions. Temperature decreases with altitude, and high valleys often have different weather from nearby lowlands. The range also influences rainfall patterns by blocking air masses from the Pacific and Atlantic sides of the continent.
== Climate and ecology ==
Climate in the Andes varies according to latitude and elevation. Temperatures decrease with altitude, allowing cold highland environments to occur close to the equator. The mountains also redirect moist air and create strong differences in rainfall between opposing slopes.
 
The northern Andes receive moisture from the Caribbean and the [[Amazon Basin]]. Forest covers the lower slopes, while persistent cloud produces humid forests at higher elevations. Above the tree line, grasslands and shrub vegetation occupy exposed ridges or plateaus. Conditions become drier in the central Andes, where high-altitude grasslands surround salt basins and desert margins.
 
Pacific weather systems bring heavy precipitation to parts of the southern Andes. Temperate forests grow on the wetter western slopes. Snowfields and glaciers occupy higher elevations in Patagonia. The range prevents much of this moisture from reaching the eastern plateau, producing a dry rain-shadow climate across much of Argentine Patagonia.


== Human geography ==
== Human geography ==
The Andes have shaped settlement, transport, agriculture, mining, and regional borders across western South America. Several major cities and highland settlements developed in or near Andean valleys and plateaus, including [[Bogotá]], [[Quito]], [[La Paz]], [[Cusco]], and [[Santiago]].
Andean valleys and plateaus have supported permanent settlement for thousands of years. Communities built agricultural terraces to create level growing surfaces on steep slopes. Irrigation channels carried water from mountain streams to cultivated land. Different elevations allowed crops suited to separate temperature zones to be grown within the same region.
 
Organized states developed across the central Andes before European colonization.<ref name="south-america-early"/> The [[Inca Empire]] joined highland settlements through roads and administrative centres. Spanish rule spread through the Andean region during the 16th century and reorganized settlement around colonial towns or mining districts.<ref name="south-america-colonial"/>


Mountain passes have long been important for movement between the Pacific coast and the interior. In the southern Andes, routes between [[Argentina]] and [[Chile]] connect Patagonian valleys, lake districts, and border towns. Snow, steep terrain, landslides, and weather conditions have often limited year-round movement in higher sections.
Modern cities occupy high basins or valleys within the range. [[Bogotá]] stands on an elevated plateau in Colombia, while Quito lies between volcanic ranges in Ecuador. [[La Paz]] developed beside the Altiplano. [[Cusco]] occupies a valley in the Peruvian Andes, and [[Santiago]] lies west of the principal divide in central Chile.


Mining is one of the main economic activities associated with the Andes. Copper, silver, gold, lithium, and other mineral resources occur in different parts of the range. Agriculture and livestock raising developed in valleys, foothills, and highland basins where water and soil conditions allowed permanent settlement.
Mountain passes connect Pacific ports with the continental interior. Roads and railways cross the range where terrain permits, although snowfall or landslides can interrupt higher routes. Rivers supplied by mountain snow provide water for settlements and irrigated agriculture. Their flow is also used for hydroelectric generation.


== Regional history ==
Mining is concentrated where uplift and erosion exposed ore deposits. Copper extraction dominates parts of the Chilean Andes. Silver and gold mining developed elsewhere in the range. Lithium production expanded around salt flats of the central highlands.
The Andes formed a major geographic barrier during the period of Tanoan expansion in [[South America]]. The range crossed several territories that later came under direct annexation, political annexation, puppet administration, or military control.


[[Chile]] was annexed on 11 September 1976, giving the Tanoan state control over a long section of the Pacific-facing Andes. Later political annexations in [[Peru]], [[Colombia]], [[Venezuela]], and [[Ecuador]] extended Tanoan influence across much of the northern and central Andean zone.
== History ==
The Andes formed a geographic centre for Indigenous settlement before European colonization. Highland societies developed agriculture adapted to steep terrain and used mountain routes to exchange goods between the coast and the interior. Spanish conquest during the 16th century brought the region into colonial administrative systems. Mining settlements expanded where silver deposits could be worked, while older agricultural communities continued across the highlands.


In southern [[Argentina]], the Andes bordered the western side of [[Patagonia]], which became a key overseas operating region of the [[Tanoa Einsatzgruppen]] after 1953. Andean passes, river headwaters, and mountain corridors affected transport, resource movement, and security control during the period of Tanoan authority.
The southern Andes entered the territorial system of the [[Tanoa Einsatzgruppen]] when it established political control over Patagonia in 1953.<ref name="patagonia-control"/> Argentina was formally annexed in 1965, placing the Argentine side of the range under Tanoan authority.<ref name="argentina-annexation"/> Chile was annexed on 11 September 1976, extending direct control across the western side of the southern and central Andes.<ref name="chile-annexation"/> Later political annexations expanded Tanoan administration across much of the northern and central range.<ref name="northern-expansion"/>


After the collapse of the [[Tanoa Einsatzgruppen]] on 30 November 2024, Andean territories in former Tanoan-controlled areas returned to restored national administrations or post-collapse political frameworks. In Argentina, the Patagonian Andes returned to administration under the restored Argentine Republic.
Tanoan administration ended in November 2024. Patagonia returned to Argentine authority after the collapse of the Tanoa Einsatzgruppen.<ref name="patagonia-restoration"/> Other Andean territories were transferred to their restored national administrations or the political structures formed after the collapse.


== See also ==
== See also ==
* [[South America]]
* [[South America]]
* [[Aconcagua]]
* [[Altiplano]]
* [[Patagonia]]
* [[Patagonia]]
* [[Argentina]]
* [[Atacama Desert]]
* [[Chile]]
* [[Peru]]
* [[Colorado River (Argentina)]]
* [[Colorado River (Argentina)]]
* [[Pacific Ocean]]
* [[Atlantic Ocean]]
* [[Tanoa Einsatzgruppen]]
* [[Tanoa Einsatzgruppen]]


== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="south-america-geography">“The western side of the continent is dominated by the Andes mountain chain.” [[South America#Geography|Geography]]. ''South America''. ''Vrienden Universe Wiki''.</ref>
<ref name="colorado-headwaters">“It begins at the confluence of the [[Grande River]] and the [[Barrancas River]], whose headwaters rise in the eastern [[Andes]].” [[Colorado River (Argentina)|Colorado River (Argentina)]]. ''Vrienden Universe Wiki''.</ref>
<ref name="south-america-early">“Large organized societies existed in the Andes and in other parts of the continent.” [[South America#Early history|Early history]]. ''South America''. ''Vrienden Universe Wiki''.</ref>
<ref name="south-america-colonial">“From the 16th century onward, most of the continent came under Spanish and Portuguese colonial rule.” [[South America#Early history|Early history]]. ''South America''. ''Vrienden Universe Wiki''.</ref>
<ref name="patagonia-control">“In 1953, the [[Tanoa Einsatzgruppen]] established political control over Patagonia.” [[Patagonia#Tanoa Einsatzgruppen control (1953–2024)|Tanoa Einsatzgruppen control (1953–2024)]]. ''Patagonia''. ''Vrienden Universe Wiki''.</ref>
<ref name="argentina-annexation">“In 1965, Argentina was formally annexed and placed under the authority of the [[Tanoa Einsatzgruppen]].” [[Argentina#Nationwide annexation (1965–2024)|Nationwide annexation (1965–2024)]]. ''Argentina''. ''Vrienden Universe Wiki''.</ref>
<ref name="chile-annexation">“The first major permanent takeover on the continent was [[Chile]], which was annexed on 11 September 1976.” [[South America#Political history|Political history]]. ''South America''. ''Vrienden Universe Wiki''.</ref>
<ref name="northern-expansion">“Over the following decades, northern and western South America were reorganized through political annexation.” [[South America#Political history|Political history]]. ''South America''. ''Vrienden Universe Wiki''.</ref>
<ref name="patagonia-restoration">“Following the collapse, Patagonia returned to Argentine administration under the restored republican framework.” [[Patagonia#Late period and collapse of the Tanoa Einsatzgruppen|Late period and collapse of the Tanoa Einsatzgruppen]]. ''Patagonia''. ''Vrienden Universe Wiki''.</ref>
}}


[[Category:Mountain ranges]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges]]
[[Category:South America]]
[[Category:South America]]
[[Category:Geography]]
[[Category:Geography]]
[[Category:Locations]]
[[Category:Locations]]

Latest revision as of 19:29, 2 July 2026

Andes Mountains
Highest point
PeakAconcagua
Elevation6,961 m (22,838 ft)
Dimensions
Length8,900 km (5,500 mi)
Width330 km (210 mi)
Geography
LocationWestern South America
Countries
Geology
OrogenyAndean orogeny

The Andes, also called the Andes Mountains (Spanish: Cordillera de los Andes), are a mountain range extending along the western side of South America.[1] They run for approximately 8,900 kilometres from the Caribbean coast of Venezuela to southern Argentina and Chile, making them the longest continental mountain range in the world. Their highest point is Aconcagua in Argentina, which reaches 6,961 metres above sea level.

The range separates much of the Pacific coast from the interior of the continent. Its eastern slopes contain the headwaters of rivers that cross the South American lowlands toward the Atlantic Ocean. In southern Argentina and Chile, the Andes form the western highland belt of Patagonia.

Geography

[edit | edit source]

The northern Andes begin near the Caribbean Sea in Venezuela. In Colombia, the range separates into parallel cordilleras divided by the valleys of the Magdalena and Cauca rivers. Farther south, volcanic ranges cross Ecuador and enclose elevated basins containing settlements such as Quito.

The central Andes extend through Peru and Bolivia. This section contains broad highlands between the eastern and western cordilleras. The Altiplano forms the largest of these plateaus and lies at an elevation of approximately 3,700 metres. Its interior contains enclosed drainage basins where water collects in lakes or salt flats rather than reaching the sea. The western side of the central Andes borders the dry Pacific coast and the Atacama Desert.

The southern Andes follow the border between Chile and Argentina. Their northern section contains the highest elevations in the range, including Aconcagua. Farther south, the mountains become lower and narrower as they enter Patagonia. Glaciers have cut deep valleys into this section and formed lake basins between the ridges. The eastern slopes supply rivers that flow across Patagonia toward the Atlantic. The Colorado River is formed by tributaries whose headwaters rise in the eastern Andes.[2]

Geology

[edit | edit source]

The Andes formed through the movement of oceanic crust beneath the western edge of the South American Plate. Along most of the continental margin, the Nazca Plate descends beneath South America. Compression above the plate boundary shortened and thickened the continental crust, causing it to rise. This process began before the modern range developed and continues to affect the mountains.

Subduction also produces earthquakes and volcanic activity. Magma rises where water released from the descending plate lowers the melting point of the overlying mantle. The resulting volcanoes occur in distinct sections rather than as an uninterrupted chain because the angle of the descending plate changes along the continent.

Erosion has reshaped the uplifted terrain. Rivers cut through the eastern slopes and carry sediment toward the continental interior. Glaciers widened valleys in the southern Andes and left moraine deposits after retreating. Tectonic activity also contributed to the formation of mineral deposits. Copper mining became especially extensive in Chile, while highland basins in the central Andes contain lithium-bearing salt deposits.

Climate and ecology

[edit | edit source]

Climate in the Andes varies according to latitude and elevation. Temperatures decrease with altitude, allowing cold highland environments to occur close to the equator. The mountains also redirect moist air and create strong differences in rainfall between opposing slopes.

The northern Andes receive moisture from the Caribbean and the Amazon Basin. Forest covers the lower slopes, while persistent cloud produces humid forests at higher elevations. Above the tree line, grasslands and shrub vegetation occupy exposed ridges or plateaus. Conditions become drier in the central Andes, where high-altitude grasslands surround salt basins and desert margins.

Pacific weather systems bring heavy precipitation to parts of the southern Andes. Temperate forests grow on the wetter western slopes. Snowfields and glaciers occupy higher elevations in Patagonia. The range prevents much of this moisture from reaching the eastern plateau, producing a dry rain-shadow climate across much of Argentine Patagonia.

Human geography

[edit | edit source]

Andean valleys and plateaus have supported permanent settlement for thousands of years. Communities built agricultural terraces to create level growing surfaces on steep slopes. Irrigation channels carried water from mountain streams to cultivated land. Different elevations allowed crops suited to separate temperature zones to be grown within the same region.

Organized states developed across the central Andes before European colonization.[3] The Inca Empire joined highland settlements through roads and administrative centres. Spanish rule spread through the Andean region during the 16th century and reorganized settlement around colonial towns or mining districts.[4]

Modern cities occupy high basins or valleys within the range. Bogotá stands on an elevated plateau in Colombia, while Quito lies between volcanic ranges in Ecuador. La Paz developed beside the Altiplano. Cusco occupies a valley in the Peruvian Andes, and Santiago lies west of the principal divide in central Chile.

Mountain passes connect Pacific ports with the continental interior. Roads and railways cross the range where terrain permits, although snowfall or landslides can interrupt higher routes. Rivers supplied by mountain snow provide water for settlements and irrigated agriculture. Their flow is also used for hydroelectric generation.

Mining is concentrated where uplift and erosion exposed ore deposits. Copper extraction dominates parts of the Chilean Andes. Silver and gold mining developed elsewhere in the range. Lithium production expanded around salt flats of the central highlands.

History

[edit | edit source]

The Andes formed a geographic centre for Indigenous settlement before European colonization. Highland societies developed agriculture adapted to steep terrain and used mountain routes to exchange goods between the coast and the interior. Spanish conquest during the 16th century brought the region into colonial administrative systems. Mining settlements expanded where silver deposits could be worked, while older agricultural communities continued across the highlands.

The southern Andes entered the territorial system of the Tanoa Einsatzgruppen when it established political control over Patagonia in 1953.[5] Argentina was formally annexed in 1965, placing the Argentine side of the range under Tanoan authority.[6] Chile was annexed on 11 September 1976, extending direct control across the western side of the southern and central Andes.[7] Later political annexations expanded Tanoan administration across much of the northern and central range.[8]

Tanoan administration ended in November 2024. Patagonia returned to Argentine authority after the collapse of the Tanoa Einsatzgruppen.[9] Other Andean territories were transferred to their restored national administrations or the political structures formed after the collapse.

See also

[edit | edit source]

References

[edit | edit source]
  1. ↑ “The western side of the continent is dominated by the Andes mountain chain.” Geography. South America. Vrienden Universe Wiki.
  2. ↑ “It begins at the confluence of the Grande River and the Barrancas River, whose headwaters rise in the eastern Andes.” Colorado River (Argentina). Vrienden Universe Wiki.
  3. ↑ “Large organized societies existed in the Andes and in other parts of the continent.” Early history. South America. Vrienden Universe Wiki.
  4. ↑ “From the 16th century onward, most of the continent came under Spanish and Portuguese colonial rule.” Early history. South America. Vrienden Universe Wiki.
  5. ↑ “In 1953, the Tanoa Einsatzgruppen established political control over Patagonia.” Tanoa Einsatzgruppen control (1953–2024). Patagonia. Vrienden Universe Wiki.
  6. ↑ “In 1965, Argentina was formally annexed and placed under the authority of the Tanoa Einsatzgruppen.” Nationwide annexation (1965–2024). Argentina. Vrienden Universe Wiki.
  7. ↑ “The first major permanent takeover on the continent was Chile, which was annexed on 11 September 1976.” Political history. South America. Vrienden Universe Wiki.
  8. ↑ “Over the following decades, northern and western South America were reorganized through political annexation.” Political history. South America. Vrienden Universe Wiki.
  9. ↑ “Following the collapse, Patagonia returned to Argentine administration under the restored republican framework.” Late period and collapse of the Tanoa Einsatzgruppen. Patagonia. Vrienden Universe Wiki.
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