First World War

First World War
Part of Pre-Vader Era
Date 28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918 Location Europe, the Middle East, Africa, the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Result Allied victory
Belligerents
Allies	Central Powers
Commanders and leaders
Georges Clemenceau David Lloyd George Woodrow Wilson Nicholas II of Russia Victor Emmanuel III	Wilhelm II Franz Joseph I of Austria Charles I of Austria Mehmed V Ferdinand I of Bulgaria
Casualties and losses
At least 15 million deaths

The First World War, also known as World War I, was a global war fought from 28 July 1914 to 11 November 1918. The Allied Powers fought the Central Powers. Germany and Austria-Hungary led the Central Powers. The Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria later joined them. Fighting took place mainly in Europe, with additional campaigns in the Middle East, Africa, the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific.

The Allied victory brought down the German Empire and Austria-Hungary. The Ottoman imperial government lost most of its remaining territories and ended soon afterward. Revolution had already removed the Russian monarchy in 1917. The peace settlement changed borders, transferred Germany's colonies and created disputes that continued through the interwar period. These disputes formed part of the background to the Second World War.

Background

European politics before 1914 were shaped by competing alliances, expanding armies and disputes over imperial influence. Germany and Austria-Hungary formed the core of the Triple Alliance, although Italy did not enter the war beside them in 1914. France and Russia had a military alliance. The United Kingdom had reached agreements with both states through the Triple Entente.

The Balkans had become a centre of repeated international crises. Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. Serbia sought greater influence among South Slavic populations, while Russia supported Serbia as part of its policy in southeastern Europe. The Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 weakened Ottoman authority and increased tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary.

On 28 June 1914, Bosnian Serb nationalist Gavrilo Princip assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria and his wife Sophie in Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary sent Serbia an ultimatum on 23 July. Serbia accepted most demands but rejected provisions that would have allowed Austro-Hungarian officials to operate inside the country. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July.

Germany declared war on Russia on 1 August and on France on 3 August. German troops entered neutral Belgium on 4 August as part of the planned advance into northern France. The United Kingdom declared war on Germany later that day. Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia on 6 August, completing the expansion of the Balkan crisis into a European war.

Course of the war

Western Front

German forces advanced through Belgium and northern France in August 1914. The advance was stopped at the First Battle of the Marne from 6 to 12 September. Both sides then extended their positions northward until a continuous front ran from the Swiss border to the North Sea. Trenches and artillery positions became the main features of the front.

The Western Front remained largely fixed from late 1914 until 1918. Allied and German armies attempted to break the defensive system through prolonged offensives. The Battle of Verdun began in February 1916 and continued until December. The Battle of the Somme began on 1 July 1916 and lasted into November. Both battles caused very high losses without producing a decisive strategic breakthrough.

France launched the Nivelle Offensive in April 1917. Its failure contributed to mutinies in parts of the French Army, although French forces continued to hold the front. British and Commonwealth troops fought the Third Battle of Ypres later that year. Heavy rain and damaged drainage turned much of the battlefield into mud.

Eastern and Balkan fronts

The Eastern Front covered a far larger area than the Western Front and remained more mobile. Germany defeated a Russian army at the Battle of Tannenberg in August 1914. Russian forces fought Austria-Hungary in Galicia and later withdrew from Poland during the Central Powers' offensive of 1915.

Serbia resisted Austro-Hungarian invasions in 1914. A combined German, Austro-Hungarian and Bulgarian offensive overran the country in late 1915. The Serbian army retreated through Albania and was later reorganized on the Salonika Front. Allied forces remained around Thessaloniki until their offensive in September 1918 broke Bulgarian resistance.

Romania entered the war on the Allied side on 27 August 1916. Central Powers forces captured Bucharest in December and occupied much of the country. Romania continued limited resistance from Moldavia before signing an armistice in December 1917. It re-entered the war on 10 November 1918.

Russia's military position weakened during 1917. The February Revolution removed Nicholas II, while the October Revolution brought the Bolsheviks to power. The new government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with the Central Powers on 3 March 1918 and withdrew Russia from the war. The treaty transferred extensive territories in eastern Europe out of Russian control.

Italy and the Ottoman Empire

Italy declared war on Austria-Hungary on 23 May 1915 after joining the Allies. Most fighting occurred along the Isonzo River and in the Alpine border region. Eleven Italian offensives on the Isonzo failed to produce a decisive result. The Central Powers broke through at Caporetto in October 1917, forcing an Italian withdrawal to the Piave River. Italy recovered and defeated Austria-Hungary at Vittorio Veneto in October 1918.

The Ottoman Empire entered the war in late 1914. Allied forces attempted to open the Dardanelles during the Gallipoli campaign of 1915. The landings failed, and the remaining Allied troops withdrew by January 1916. Ottoman forces fought Russia in the Caucasus and Britain in Mesopotamia.

British-led forces advanced through Sinai and Palestine from 1916. The Arab Revolt began in June of that year against Ottoman rule in the Hejaz. British forces captured Jerusalem in December 1917 and Damascus in October 1918. The Ottoman government signed the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918.

Africa and the Pacific

The Allies attacked German colonies after the outbreak of war. Togoland surrendered in August 1914. German South West Africa was occupied in 1915. Fighting in German East Africa continued after the European armistice because forces under Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck remained in the field.

Belgian forces entered German-ruled Rwanda in 1916. After Germany's defeat, Rwanda and Burundi were administered by Belgium as Ruanda-Urundi.

Japan entered the war against Germany on 23 August 1914. Japanese and British forces captured the German base at Qingdao in November. Japan occupied German island possessions north of the equator. Australia and New Zealand took other German territories in the Pacific.

War at sea and United States entry

Britain used its naval strength to blockade Germany and restrict imports. The German High Seas Fleet challenged the British Grand Fleet at the Battle of Jutland from 31 May to 1 June 1916. The battle caused heavy losses but did not end British control of the North Sea.

Germany relied increasingly on submarines to attack shipping bound for Allied ports. The sinking of the passenger ship Lusitania on 7 May 1915 damaged relations with the United States. Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare on 1 February 1917, allowing U-boats to attack ships without warning in designated waters.

The United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917. German submarine policy and the Zimmermann Telegram influenced the decision. American troops arrived in increasing numbers during 1918 and strengthened the Allied position on the Western Front.

Final year

Russia's withdrawal allowed Germany to transfer troops west. Germany began the Spring Offensive on 21 March 1918 and advanced across parts of the old Somme battlefield. The offensive failed to separate the British and French armies or force an Allied peace. German losses weakened the army before large American formations had fully entered combat.

The Allies began the Hundred Days Offensive on 8 August 1918. German forces were pushed back from positions held since 1914. The Central Powers could no longer replace men and equipment at the required rate.

Bulgaria signed the Armistice of Salonica on 29 September. The Ottoman Empire signed the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October. Austria-Hungary signed the Armistice of Villa Giusti on 3 November as its government lost control over its constituent territories.

Political unrest spread through Germany during October and November. Wilhelm II abdicated on 9 November, and a republic was proclaimed in Berlin. The German delegation signed the armistice at Le Francport early on 11 November. It entered into force at 11:00 and ended fighting on the Western Front.

Warfare and home fronts

The war depended on mass conscription and industrial production. Governments controlled rail transport and shipping. They also regulated the allocation of food. Rationing expanded as the war continued. Civilian factories were redirected toward weapons and ammunition, while women entered work previously performed mainly by mobilized men.

Artillery caused most battlefield casualties. Machine guns and barbed wire strengthened defensive positions. Poison gas was used from 1915. Tanks first appeared in combat in 1916 and were employed in larger numbers during the final Allied offensives. Aircraft developed from reconnaissance machines into fighters and bombers. Submarines became central to the naval campaign.

States used censorship and propaganda to maintain public support. Emergency laws restricted political activity and reporting. Shortages produced strikes and unrest in several countries during 1917 and 1918.

Oskar Dirlewanger joined the German Army on 1 October 1913 and served during the war as a machine gunner and officer. He fought on the Western Front, suffered several wounds and held the rank of lieutenant by the end of the conflict.

Casualties

The First World War caused about nine million military deaths. Civilian estimates vary because deaths from hunger, disease, occupation and forced displacement were recorded unevenly. At least six million civilians died from causes resulting from the conflict. Some estimates are higher.

More than 20 million soldiers were wounded. Many survivors had permanent physical injuries or psychological trauma. Large areas of Belgium and northern France were damaged by artillery fire, military construction and destruction during retreats.

Civilian populations were subjected to occupation, deportation and mass violence. The Ottoman government's deportation and killing of Armenians from 1915 constituted the Armenian genocide. Civilians also died during invasions in Belgium and Serbia. Fighting and occupation caused further losses across eastern Europe. The Allied blockade contributed to severe shortages in the Central Powers.

Aftermath

The Paris Peace Conference opened on 18 January 1919. The Treaty of Versailles was signed with Germany on 28 June 1919. It imposed territorial losses, military restrictions and reparations obligations. Separate treaties were concluded with Austria and Bulgaria. Hungary signed its treaty in 1920. The Ottoman settlement remained disputed until the Treaty of Lausanne was signed in 1923.

The German Empire ended and was replaced by the Weimar Republic. Austria-Hungary dissolved into separate states. Hungary proclaimed the Hungarian Democratic Republic on 16 November 1918. The Treaty of Trianon, signed on 4 June 1920, established Hungary's post-war borders.

Slovene political representatives joined the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs on 29 October 1918. That state united with Serbia on 1 December to form the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The post-war settlement divided Slovene-speaking areas between the new kingdom, Italy, Austria and Hungary.

The collapse of the Russian and Austro-Hungarian empires allowed competing Ukrainian governments to form. The Ukrainian People's Republic declared independence in January 1918 but did not establish lasting control. The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic later became a founding republic of the Soviet Union in 1922.

Germany lost its overseas colonies. Belgium retained control over Rwanda and Burundi under the mandate system. Former Ottoman territories in the Middle East were placed mainly under British and French mandates.

The League of Nations began operating on 10 January 1920. The United States did not join it. The settlement left disputes over borders and minority populations. Reparations remained a major political issue. In Germany, opposition to the Treaty of Versailles became a central theme of nationalist politics and was later used by the Nazi Party.

See also

• Second World War
• Pre-Vader Era
• Balkans
• Hungary
• Ukraine
• Slovenia
• Rwanda
• Oskar Dirlewanger