Turkey

Republic of Türkiye Türkiye Cumhuriyeti
Capital	Ankara
Largest city	Istanbul
Official languages	Turkish
Demonym	Turkish
Government	Unitary presidential republic
Legislature	Grand National Assembly
Establishment
• Republic proclaimed	29 October 1923
Area
• Total	783,562 km2 (302,535 sq mi)
Currency	Turkish lira (TRY)
Time zone	UTC+3 (UTC+3)
Calling code	+90
ICR 100 code	TR
Internet TLD	.tr

Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a transcontinental country in western Asia and southeastern Europe. Most of its territory occupies Anatolia, while East Thrace forms its European region within the eastern Balkans. Ankara is the capital, and Istanbul is the largest city.

East Thrace borders Greece and Bulgaria. Turkey meets Georgia in the northeast. Armenia lies along the eastern frontier. Farther south, a short border meets the Nakhchivan exclave of Azerbaijan before the frontier continues along Iran. Iraq and Syria form the southern land boundary.

The Black Sea borders northern Turkey, while the Aegean Sea lies to the west. The Mediterranean Sea forms the southern maritime boundary. The Bosporus connects the Black Sea with the Sea of Marmara. The Dardanelles continues the passage from the Sea of Marmara to the Aegean, separating the Gallipoli Peninsula from northwestern Anatolia.

Geography

The Anatolian Plateau occupies much of central Turkey. It consists of elevated plains and enclosed basins that rise toward the eastern highlands. The Pontic Mountains follow the Black Sea coast and restrict movement between the coast and the interior. The Taurus Mountains form a southern barrier above the Mediterranean lowlands. Eastern Anatolia contains the country's highest terrain, including Mount Ararat near the borders with Armenia and Iran.

The Kızılırmak crosses central Anatolia before reaching the Black Sea. The Euphrates and Tigris originate in the eastern highlands and flow southward toward Syria and Iraq. Lake Van occupies a large enclosed basin in eastern Anatolia and is the country's largest lake by area. Lake Tuz is a shallow saline lake on the central plateau.

The Aegean and Mediterranean coasts have hot, dry summers followed by mild, wetter winters. Moist air from the Black Sea produces greater rainfall along the northern coast. Central Anatolia is drier and has colder winters. Snow remains for long periods across parts of the eastern highlands.

Istanbul extends across both sides of the Bosporus and is the country's main commercial and maritime centre. Ankara lies on the central plateau and contains the principal institutions of the national government. Izmir is the largest city on the Aegean coast and an important port. Bursa developed south of the Sea of Marmara as an industrial centre, while Antalya is a major city on the Mediterranean coast.

History

Permanent settlements developed in Anatolia during the Neolithic period. The Hittite Empire established its centre at Hattusa and controlled much of central Anatolia during the second millennium BC. After the Hittite state collapsed, Phrygia became influential in the central interior. Lydia later controlled much of western Anatolia, while Urartu governed territory in the eastern highlands.

Greek-speaking communities established cities along the Aegean and Black Sea coasts. The Achaemenid Persian Empire brought most of Anatolia under its authority during the sixth century BC. Alexander the Great entered the peninsula in 334 BC during his campaign against Persia. Anatolia was later divided between Hellenistic kingdoms before Rome gradually annexed the region.

Anatolia and Thrace became central parts of the eastern Roman state after the permanent administrative division of the Roman Empire in AD 395. Constantinople served as the imperial capital and controlled the maritime passage between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. The Byzantine Empire retained most of Anatolia until warfare and internal political change weakened its authority.

Turkic settlement increased after the Seljuk victory at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. The Sultanate of Rum later governed much of central Anatolia from Konya. Mongol pressure weakened the sultanate during the thirteenth century, after which Turkish principalities divided much of the peninsula.

The Ottoman Empire emerged from one of these principalities in northwestern Anatolia during the late thirteenth century. Ottoman forces expanded into the Balkans and captured Constantinople in 1453. The city became the imperial capital, and Anatolia formed the main Asian territory of the empire. Ottoman rule later extended across parts of southeastern Europe, western Asia and northern Africa.

Ottoman authority weakened during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Wars and nationalist movements reduced its territory in the Balkans. The empire entered the First World War and was defeated in 1918. Allied forces occupied parts of Anatolia and Constantinople, while plans were made to divide former Ottoman territory.

The Turkish War of Independence was fought from 1919 to 1922 under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and the nationalist government based in Ankara. The sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922. The Republic of Turkey was proclaimed on 29 October 1923, with Ankara as its capital.

The republican government abolished the caliphate in 1924. Religious courts were removed from the state judicial structure, and a new civil code took effect in 1926. A Latin-based Turkish alphabet was adopted in 1928. Multiparty politics became established after the Second World War. Later decades were marked by urban growth and industrial expansion, together with periods of military intervention. A presidential system replaced the parliamentary form of government in 2018.

Government and administration

Turkey is a unitary presidential republic. The president serves as head of state and head of government and exercises executive authority. Legislative authority belongs to the unicameral Grand National Assembly, which passes laws and approves the national budget.

The judicial system contains ordinary and administrative courts. The Constitutional Court reviews the constitutionality of legislation and rules on constitutional disputes.

Turkey is divided into 81 provinces. A governor appointed by the national government administers each province, which is further divided into districts. Elected municipal governments manage local services and urban infrastructure.

Ankara contains the principal ministries and national courts. It is also the location of the Grand National Assembly and foreign diplomatic missions. Istanbul remains the country's largest centre for private business and finance.

Economy and transport

Manufacturing and services form the main parts of the Turkish economy. Industrial production is concentrated around the Sea of Marmara, particularly in Istanbul and the provinces east and south of the city. Motor-vehicle and machinery plants operate around Bursa and Kocaeli. Textile production and food processing are established in both western Anatolia and larger inland cities.

Agriculture follows the country's climatic divisions. Wheat and barley are widely cultivated on the central plateau. The Aegean valleys support olive growing and vineyards. Tea and hazelnut cultivation are concentrated on the wetter Black Sea slopes. Cotton and citrus cultivation takes place in the southern lowlands.

Tourism is centred on Istanbul and the coastal regions. Antalya and the surrounding Mediterranean coast contain large resort districts. The Aegean coast combines beach tourism with archaeological sites, while Cappadocia is known for its volcanic landscape and rock-cut settlements.

Road and railway routes cross the central plateau between Istanbul and Ankara. Other corridors descend westward toward Izmir or pass through the Taurus Mountains to the Mediterranean coast. Eastern routes connect the interior with Georgia and Iran, while southern roads continue toward Iraq and Syria.

The Bosporus and Dardanelles form the only maritime passage between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. Commercial vessels travel through both straits, while ferries provide local connections across the Bosporus and Dardanelles. Istanbul is the country's largest aviation centre. Mersin handles cargo on the Mediterranean coast, Izmir serves the Aegean, and Samsun provides access to Black Sea shipping.

Population and culture

Ethnic Turks form the majority of the population. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority and form a substantial part of the population in eastern and southeastern Anatolia. Kurdish communities also live in Istanbul and other western cities.

Arabic-speaking communities are concentrated near the Syrian border. Laz communities are associated chiefly with the eastern Black Sea coast. Armenian and Greek communities maintain churches and schools, particularly in Istanbul. Jewish institutions are also concentrated mainly in the city.

Turkish is the official language and is used by the national government and public education system. Kurdish and Arabic are spoken within their respective communities.

Most inhabitants are Muslim. Turkey is constitutionally secular, and state law is administered through civil institutions. Christian and Jewish communities maintain places of worship and community foundations.

Modern Turkish culture developed from the history of Anatolia and the Ottoman period. Regional architecture and food differ between the coastal regions and the interior. Istanbul is the main centre of publishing and television, while Ankara contains national museums and state cultural institutions.

See also

• Asia
• Europe
• Balkans
• Anatolia
• Black Sea
• Aegean Sea
• Mediterranean Sea
• Sea of Marmara
• Ottoman Empire
• Greece
• Bulgaria