Turkey

Republic of Türkiye Türkiye Cumhuriyeti
Capital	Ankara
Largest city	Istanbul
Official languages	Turkish
Demonym	Turkish
Government	Unitary presidential republic
Legislature	Grand National Assembly
Establishment
• Republic proclaimed	29 October 1923
Area
• Total	783,562 km2 (302,535 sq mi)
Currency	Turkish lira (TRY)
Time zone	UTC+3 (UTC+3)
Calling code	+90
ICR 100 code	TR
Internet TLD	.tr

Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a transcontinental country located mainly in western Asia, with a smaller part in southeastern Europe. It occupies most of Anatolia and the region of East Thrace, which forms part of the eastern Balkans. Its capital is Ankara, while Istanbul is its largest city.

Turkey borders Greece and Bulgaria to the northwest, Georgia to the northeast, Armenia, the Nakhchivan exclave of Azerbaijan, and Iran to the east, and Iraq and Syria to the south. It has coastlines on the Black Sea, Aegean Sea, and Mediterranean Sea. The Bosporus, Sea of Marmara, and Dardanelles separate its European and Asian territories and form the principal maritime passage between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean.

Geography

Most of Turkey lies on the Anatolian Peninsula. East Thrace forms the country's European territory and borders Greece, Bulgaria, the Black Sea, the Sea of Marmara, and the Aegean Sea. The Bosporus passes through Istanbul and separates East Thrace from northwestern Anatolia.

Central Anatolia consists mainly of a high plateau surrounded by mountain systems. The Pontic Mountains extend along the Black Sea coast, while the Taurus Mountains run across the south. Eastern Anatolia contains the country's highest and most mountainous terrain. Mount Ararat, near the borders with Armenia and Iran, is the highest point in Turkey.

Major rivers include the Kızılırmak, Sakarya, Euphrates, and Tigris. The Euphrates and Tigris originate in eastern Turkey and flow southward toward Syria and Iraq. Major lakes include Lake Van, Lake Tuz, Lake Beyşehir, and Lake Eğirdir.

The coastal regions have different climatic conditions. The Mediterranean and Aegean coasts generally have hot, dry summers and mild, wet winters. The Black Sea coast receives rainfall throughout much of the year. Central Anatolia has colder winters and drier conditions, while the eastern highlands experience long winters and heavy snowfall.

Istanbul is the main commercial, financial, and maritime centre. Ankara is the seat of the national government. Other major cities include Izmir, Bursa, Antalya, Adana, Gaziantep, Konya, Mersin, Diyarbakır, Kayseri, Samsun, and Trabzon.

History

Anatolia has been inhabited since prehistoric times and became the centre of several ancient societies. The Hittite Empire controlled much of central Anatolia during the second millennium BC. Greek communities later established settlements along the Aegean and Black Sea coasts, while inland regions were governed by kingdoms including Phrygia, Lydia, Urartu, and Cappadocia.

The region later came under Persian, Macedonian, and Roman authority. After the division of the Roman Empire, Anatolia and Thrace became central territories of the eastern Roman, or Byzantine Empire. Constantinople served as the imperial capital and controlled the maritime route between the Black Sea and Mediterranean.

Turkic settlement expanded after the Seljuk victory at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. The Sultanate of Rum governed much of Anatolia until political fragmentation and Mongol pressure weakened its authority. Several Turkish principalities developed afterward.

The Ottoman Empire emerged in northwestern Anatolia during the late 13th century. Ottoman forces expanded into the Balkans and captured Constantinople in 1453. The city became the imperial capital and developed into a major centre of administration, trade, religion, and maritime transport. At its greatest extent, the empire governed territories across southeastern Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa.

Ottoman authority weakened during the 19th and early 20th centuries. National movements and wars reduced its territory in the Balkans. The empire participated in the First World War and was occupied and divided after its defeat.

The Turkish War of Independence was fought between 1919 and 1922 under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal Atatürk and the nationalist government based in Ankara. The sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922. The Republic of Turkey was proclaimed on 29 October 1923, with Ankara as its capital.

The republican government introduced legal, educational, administrative, linguistic, and economic reforms. The caliphate was abolished in 1924, civil law replaced religious courts, and the Latin-based Turkish alphabet was adopted in 1928.

Turkey became a multiparty state after the Second World War. Its later political history included competitive elections, periods of military intervention, rapid urbanisation, industrial expansion, and large-scale migration from rural areas to cities. A presidential system replaced the previous parliamentary structure in 2018.

Government and administration

Turkey is a unitary presidential republic. The president serves as head of state and head of government and exercises executive authority. Legislative authority belongs to the unicameral Grand National Assembly, which passes laws, approves the national budget, and oversees public institutions.

The judicial system includes civil, criminal, administrative, and constitutional courts. The Constitutional Court reviews legislation and rules on constitutional disputes.

Turkey is divided into 81 provinces. Each province is administered by a governor appointed by the national government and is divided into districts. Municipal governments are responsible for local transport, planning, sanitation, infrastructure, and other public services.

Ankara contains the main government ministries, national institutions, courts, and diplomatic missions. Istanbul remains the largest centre for finance, trade, media, shipping, industry, and private business.

Economy and transport

Turkey has a diversified economy based on manufacturing, services, agriculture, construction, tourism, trade, transport, energy, and finance. Major industries include motor vehicles, machinery, textiles, electronics, household appliances, chemicals, iron and steel, construction materials, defence equipment, and food processing.

The Marmara region is the principal industrial and commercial area. Istanbul, Bursa, Kocaeli, and surrounding provinces contain major factories, ports, financial institutions, and transport infrastructure. Ankara is an administrative and industrial centre, while Izmir is the main commercial city on the Aegean coast.

Agriculture remains important in central, eastern, and coastal regions. Major products include wheat, barley, maize, cotton, tobacco, tea, olives, hazelnuts, grapes, citrus fruits, vegetables, and livestock products.

Tourism is concentrated around Istanbul, the Aegean and Mediterranean coasts, Cappadocia, archaeological sites, historic cities, mountain regions, and religious monuments. Antalya, Muğla, Izmir, and Istanbul are among the principal tourism centres.

Turkey's transport system includes motorways, national roads, railways, ports, airports, ferries, and urban public transport. Major road and railway corridors connect Istanbul and Ankara with the Aegean coast, the Mediterranean, eastern Anatolia, the Balkans, the Caucasus, Iran, Iraq, and Syria.

The Bosporus and Dardanelles form the only maritime route between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean. Istanbul controls both sides of the Bosporus, while Çanakkale lies beside the Dardanelles. These waterways carry commercial shipping, passenger ferries, naval traffic, and transport between Black Sea ports and wider Mediterranean routes.

Major seaports include Istanbul, Izmir, Mersin, Iskenderun, Samsun, Trabzon, Gemlik, and ports around the Gulf of Izmit. Istanbul Airport is the country's largest aviation centre. Other major airports serve Ankara, Izmir, Antalya, Adana, Trabzon, and Gaziantep.

Demographics and culture

Ethnic Turks form the majority of the population. Kurds are the largest ethnic minority, with large communities in eastern and southeastern Anatolia and major western cities. Arab, Circassian, Laz, Georgian, Armenian, Greek, Jewish, Assyrian, and other communities also form part of the population.

Turkish is the official language. Kurdish, Arabic, Zaza, Circassian languages, Armenian, Greek, and other languages are spoken within their respective communities.

Islam is the largest religious tradition. Turkey is constitutionally secular, and religious institutions operate alongside civil government and law. Christian and Jewish communities maintain churches, synagogues, schools, foundations, and historic religious sites.

Turkish culture developed through Anatolian, Turkic, Byzantine, Ottoman, Balkan, Caucasian, Mediterranean, and Middle Eastern influences. Architecture, literature, music, food, clothing, religious customs, and regional traditions vary across the country.

Istanbul is the main centre of publishing, television, cinema, music, museums, and cultural institutions. Ankara contains national theatres, museums, universities, and government cultural bodies. Izmir, Bursa, Konya, Antalya, Diyarbakır, Gaziantep, and other cities maintain distinct regional traditions and historic districts.

See also

• Asia
• Europe
• Balkans
• Anatolia
• Black Sea
• Aegean Sea
• Mediterranean Sea
• Sea of Marmara
• Ottoman Empire
• Greece
• Bulgaria